Introduction to SQL for Data Science

Setting Up SQL Environment

1. Understanding Relational Databases

A relational database organizes data into tables which can be linked— or related—based on data common to each. The most common operations in SQL are as follows:

• SELECT: Retrieve data from one or more tables.
• INSERT: Add new rows of data to a table.
• UPDATE: Modify existing data within a table.
• DELETE: Remove rows of data from a table.

2. Setting Up Your SQL Environment

To start using SQL for data science projects, you need to set up a relational database management system (RDBMS). Here, we will use PostgreSQL as an example, but similar steps apply for other RDBMS such as MySQL or SQLite.

2.1 Installing PostgreSQL

1. Download PostgreSQL:
   Download and install PostgreSQL from the official website PostgreSQL Downloads.

   
   

2. Follow Installation Steps:
   During installation, you will be prompted to set a password for the postgres user. Remember this password as you will need it to connect to the database.

   
   

2.2 Setting Up Database

1. Open PostgreSQL Shell:
   Access the PostgreSQL command-line interface (psql).

   
   

   psql -U postgres
   

   
   

2. Create Database:
   Create a new database for your data science projects.

   
   

   CREATE DATABASE my_data_science_db;
   

   
   

3. Connect to Database:
   Connect to the newly created database.

   
   

   \c my_data_science_db;
   

   
   

2.3 Creating Tables

Create tables that will store your data. For example, let’s create a table customers to store customer details.

CREATE TABLE customers (
    customer_id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    first_name VARCHAR(50),
    last_name VARCHAR(50),
    email VARCHAR(100),
    phone VARCHAR(15),
    registration_date DATE
);

3. Basic SQL Queries

Once your database and tables are set up, you can perform basic SQL operations.

3.1 Inserting Data

Insert data into your tables using the INSERT INTO command.

INSERT INTO customers (first_name, last_name, email, phone, registration_date)
VALUES ('John', 'Doe', 'john.doe@example.com', '123-456-7890', '2023-10-01');

3.2 Querying Data

Retrieve data using the SELECT statement.

SELECT * FROM customers;

3.3 Updating Data

Update existing data using the UPDATE statement.

UPDATE customers
SET email = 'john.newemail@example.com'
WHERE customer_id = 1;

3.4 Deleting Data

Delete rows using the DELETE statement.

DELETE FROM customers
WHERE customer_id = 1;

4. Conclusion

These steps provide the fundamental knowledge required to set up an SQL environment, create tables, and perform basic data manipulation operations. Understanding these basics is crucial as you progress to more advanced topics such as feature engineering and model deployment in subsequent units.

SQL Basics: Queries, Joins, and Aggregations

Queries

Select Statement

The SELECT statement is used to query information from a database.

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;

Example

SELECT first_name, last_name
FROM employees;

Joins

Inner Join

INNER JOIN selects records that have matching values in both tables.

SELECT a.column1, b.column2
FROM table1 a
INNER JOIN table2 b ON a.common_column = b.common_column;

Example

SELECT e.first_name, d.department_name
FROM employees e
INNER JOIN departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;

Left Join

LEFT JOIN returns all records from the left table and the matched records from the right table. If no match, NULLs are returned.

SELECT a.column1, b.column2
FROM table1 a
LEFT JOIN table2 b ON a.common_column = b.common_column;

Example

SELECT e.first_name, d.department_name
FROM employees e
LEFT JOIN departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;

Right Join

RIGHT JOIN returns all records from the right table and the matched records from the left table. If no match, NULLs are returned.

SELECT a.column1, b.column2
FROM table1 a
RIGHT JOIN table2 b ON a.common_column = b.common_column;

Example

SELECT e.first_name, d.department_name
FROM employees e
RIGHT JOIN departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;

Full Join

FULL JOIN returns all records when there is a match in either left or right table records. If no match, NULLs are returned.

SELECT a.column1, b.column2
FROM table1 a
FULL JOIN table2 b ON a.common_column = b.common_column;

Example

SELECT e.first_name, d.department_name
FROM employees e
FULL JOIN departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;

Aggregations

Aggregate Functions

• COUNT(): Returns the number of rows that matches the specified criteria.
• SUM(): Returns the total sum of a numeric column.
• AVG(): Returns the average value of a numeric column.
• MIN(): Returns the smallest value of the selected column.
• MAX(): Returns the largest value of the selected column.

Example

SELECT 
  COUNT(employee_id) AS number_of_employees,
  AVG(salary) AS average_salary,
  MAX(salary) AS highest_salary,
  MIN(salary) AS lowest_salary,
  SUM(salary) AS total_salary
FROM employees;

Group By

GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values into summary rows.

SELECT column1, aggregate_function(column2)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column1;

Example

SELECT department_id, COUNT(employee_id) AS number_of_employees
FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id;

Having Clause

HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with aggregate functions.

SELECT column1, aggregate_function(column2)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column1
HAVING aggregate_function(column2) condition;

Example

SELECT department_id, AVG(salary) AS average_salary
FROM employees
GROUP BY department_id
HAVING AVG(salary) > 50000;

This practical implementation should help with constructing basic SQL queries, performing various types of joins, and using aggregation functions to enhance your data querying capabilities.

Advanced SQL Techniques for Data Manipulation

Subqueries

Example: Using Subqueries in a SELECT Statement

SELECT
    employee_id,
    first_name,
    last_name,
    salary,
    (SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees) AS avg_salary
FROM
    employees;

CTE (Common Table Expressions)

Example: Using CTE for Recursive Queries

WITH RECURSIVE EmployeeHierarchy AS (
    SELECT
        employee_id,
        manager_id,
        first_name,
        last_name,
        0 AS level
    FROM
        employees
    WHERE
        manager_id IS NULL
    UNION ALL
    SELECT
        e.employee_id,
        e.manager_id,
        e.first_name,
        e.last_name,
        eh.level + 1
    FROM
        employees e
        INNER JOIN EmployeeHierarchy eh ON e.manager_id = eh.employee_id
)
SELECT
    *
FROM
    EmployeeHierarchy;

Window Functions

Example: Using Window Functions for Moving Average

SELECT
    order_id,
    order_date,
    amount,
    AVG(amount) OVER (
        PARTITION BY customer_id
        ORDER BY order_date
        ROWS BETWEEN 2 PRECEDING AND CURRENT ROW
    ) AS moving_avg
FROM
    orders;

CASE Statements

Example: Using CASE for Conditional Aggregation

SELECT
    customer_id,
    SUM(CASE WHEN order_date >= '2023-01-01' AND order_date <= '2023-12-31' THEN total_amount ELSE 0 END) AS annual_sales
FROM
    orders
GROUP BY
    customer_id;

PIVOT / UNPIVOT

Example: PIVOT Table for Aggregating Data

SELECT
    product_id,
    SUM(CASE WHEN order_month = '2023-01' THEN quantity ELSE 0 END) AS Jan_2023,
    SUM(CASE WHEN order_month = '2023-02' THEN quantity ELSE 0 END) AS Feb_2023,
    SUM(CASE WHEN order_month = '2023-03' THEN quantity ELSE 0 END) AS Mar_2023
FROM
    (SELECT
        product_id,
        DATE_TRUNC('month', order_date) AS order_month,
        quantity
     FROM
        order_items) subquery
GROUP BY
    product_id;

MERGE Statement

Example: Using MERGE for Upsert Operations

MERGE INTO target_table AS target
USING source_table AS source
ON target.id = source.id
WHEN MATCHED THEN
    UPDATE SET target.column = source.column
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
    INSERT (id, column) VALUES (source.id, source.column);

JSON and XML Operations

Example: Querying JSON Data

SELECT
    json_data->>'name' AS name,
    json_data->'address'->>'city' AS city
FROM
    json_table;

Example: Querying XML Data

SELECT
    xml_data.value('(/person/name/text())[1]', 'VARCHAR(50)') AS name,
    xml_data.value('(/person/address/city/text())[1]', 'VARCHAR(50)') AS city
FROM
    xml_table;

Conclusion

These advanced SQL techniques provide powerful tools for data manipulation, making it easier to extract valuable insights and perform complex data operations.

Introduction to Feature Engineering

What is Feature Engineering?

Feature engineering involves creating new input features from your existing data to improve the performance of machine learning models. Key objectives of feature engineering include:

1. Improving the predictive power of models.
2. Enhancing the interpretability of models.
3. Optimizing the efficiency of the learning algorithms.

Common Feature Engineering Techniques

1. Handling Missing Values

Missing data can distort the results of a model. There are several ways to handle missing values:

• Imputation: Fill in missing values with mean, median, mode, or using more sophisticated methods such as k-nearest neighbors (KNN).
• Deletion: Remove any rows or columns with missing data, though this can reduce the dataset size significantly.

Pseudocode Examples

IF missing_value_method == 'impute'
    FOR each column WITH missing values
        IF column_type == 'numerical'
            FILL missing values WITH mean(column)
        ELSE IF column_type == 'categorical'
            FILL missing values WITH mode(column)
ELSE IF missing_value_method == 'delete'
    REMOVE rows/columns WITH missing values
END IF

2. Encoding Categorical Variables

Categorical features must be converted into numerical values. Common methods include:

• One-Hot Encoding: Create a binary column for each category.
• Label Encoding: Assign a unique integer to each category.

Pseudocode Examples

FOR each categorical_column in dataset
    IF encoding_type == 'one_hot'
        new_columns = one_hot_encode(categorical_column)
        REMOVE categorical_column from dataset
        ADD new_columns to dataset
    ELSE IF encoding_type == 'label'
        dataset[categorical_column] = label_encode(categorical_column)
END FOR

3. Scaling Features

Feature scaling standardizes the range of independent variables. Scaling techniques include:

• Normalization: Rescale the feature to a range of [0, 1].
• Standardization: Rescale the feature to have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

Pseudocode Examples

FOR each numerical_column in dataset
    IF scaling_method == 'normalization'
        dataset[numerical_column] = normalize(numerical_column)
    ELSE IF scaling_method == 'standardization'
        dataset[numerical_column] = standardize(numerical_column)
END FOR

4. Creating Interaction Features

Interaction features are created by combining two or more features to capture additional information.

• Polynomial Features: Creating polynomial combinations of existing numerical features.
• Domain-Specific Features: Based on domain knowledge, create features that may have predictive power.

Pseudocode Examples

FOR each pair of numerical_columns in dataset
    new_feature = numerical_columns[0] * numerical_columns[1]
    ADD new_feature to dataset
END FOR

5. Binning

Binning creates categorical features from numerical features:

• Equal-width Binning: Divide the data into bins of equal width.
• Equal-frequency Binning: Divide the data into bins with an equal number of data points.

Pseudocode Examples

FOR each numerical_column in dataset
    IF binning_method == 'equal_width'
        bins = create_equal_width_bins(numerical_column, number_of_bins)
    ELSE IF binning_method == 'equal_frequency'
        bins = create_equal_frequency_bins(numerical_column, number_of_bins)
    dataset[bin_column] = bins
END FOR

By applying these methods, you can transform raw data into a format suitable for machine learning algorithms, improving model accuracy and efficiency.

Feature Creation using SQL

This section outlines practical examples of how to create new features using SQL to enhance the performance of machine learning models. This implementation assumes an existing knowledge base of SQL basics and advanced techniques.

Example Scenario

Suppose we have a table sales with the following schema:

CREATE TABLE sales (
    sale_id INT PRIMARY KEY,
    product_id INT,
    customer_id INT,
    sale_amount DECIMAL(10, 2),
    sale_date DATE
);

Feature 1: Total Sales Amount per Customer

This feature calculates the total sales amount per customer, which can be useful to understand customer value.

SELECT
    customer_id,
    SUM(sale_amount) AS total_sales_amount
FROM
    sales
GROUP BY
    customer_id;

Feature 2: Average Sales Amount per Product

This feature calculates the average sales amount for each product to evaluate product performance.

SELECT
    product_id,
    AVG(sale_amount) AS average_sale_amount
FROM
    sales
GROUP BY
    product_id;

Feature 3: Number of Sales per Month

This feature determines the number of sales made each month, which can indicate seasonal trends.

SELECT
    DATE_TRUNC('month', sale_date) AS sale_month,
    COUNT(sale_id) AS num_sales
FROM
    sales
GROUP BY
    DATE_TRUNC('month', sale_date);

Feature 4: Sale Amount Difference from Monthly Average

This feature calculates the difference between a sale amount and the average sale amount for the month, useful for anomaly detection.

WITH MonthlyAverages AS (
    SELECT
        DATE_TRUNC('month', sale_date) AS sale_month,
        AVG(sale_amount) AS monthly_avg_sale_amount
    FROM
        sales
    GROUP BY
        DATE_TRUNC('month', sale_date)
)
SELECT
    sales.sale_id,
    sales.sale_date,
    sales.sale_amount,
    sales.sale_amount - MonthlyAverages.monthly_avg_sale_amount AS sale_diff_from_avg
FROM
    sales
JOIN
    MonthlyAverages
ON
    DATE_TRUNC('month', sales.sale_date) = MonthlyAverages.sale_month;

Feature 5: Recency of Last Purchase

This feature calculates the recency of the last purchase for each customer relative to a reference date, often used in RFM (Recency, Frequency, Monetary) analysis.

SELECT
    customer_id,
    MAX(sale_date) AS last_purchase_date,
    DATEDIFF(day, MAX(sale_date), CURRENT_DATE) AS days_since_last_purchase
FROM
    sales
GROUP BY
    customer_id;

Conclusion

These examples demonstrate how SQL can be utilized to create new features for machine learning projects. By incorporating these features, one can gain better insights and improve model performance.

Data Cleaning and Transformation with SQL

Introduction

Data cleaning and transformation are crucial steps in preparing data for analysis and machine learning. This section focuses on practical SQL techniques to clean and transform data efficiently.

Handling Missing Values

Replace Null values with a specific value:

UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = 'replacement_value'
WHERE column_name IS NULL;

Remove rows with Null values:

DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IS NULL;

Standardizing Formats

Convert all text to lowercase:

UPDATE table_name
SET column_name = LOWER(column_name);

Convert date formats:

UPDATE table_name
SET date_column = TO_CHAR(TO_DATE(date_column, 'MM/DD/YYYY'), 'YYYY-MM-DD');

Removing Duplicates

Identify duplicates:

SELECT column_name, COUNT(*)
FROM table_name
GROUP BY column_name
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1;

Remove duplicates based on a unique column:

DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE id NOT IN (
   SELECT MIN(id)
   FROM table_name
   GROUP BY column_name
);

Data Transformation

Create new columns based on existing data:

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD new_column data_type;

UPDATE table_name
SET new_column = existing_column * some_value;

Join tables to enrich data:

SELECT a.*, b.additional_column
FROM table_a a
JOIN table_b b ON a.key = b.key;

Filtering and Sorting Data

Filter rows based on conditions:

SELECT *
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name = 'specific_value' AND other_column > some_value;

Sort data:

SELECT *
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name ASC, another_column DESC;

Aggregating Data

Calculate summary statistics:

SELECT 
    AVG(numeric_column) AS average_value,
    SUM(numeric_column) AS total_value,
    MAX(numeric_column) AS max_value,
    MIN(numeric_column) AS min_value
FROM table_name
WHERE condition_column = 'some_condition';

Conclusion

These SQL techniques for data cleaning and transformation are essential for preparing your dataset for further analysis and machine learning models. Use these practical examples to clean and transform your data effectively, ensuring high-quality input for your machine learning pipeline. Implement these directly in your SQL environment to achieve pertinent results.

Exploratory Data Analysis using SQL

Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is essential for understanding the structure, patterns, and anomalies within your data. This step-by-step implementation will demonstrate how to perform EDA using SQL.

1. Understanding the Schema

Understanding the structure and schema of your database is crucial. The following SQL query retrieves tables and their columns.

-- Retrieve table names
SELECT table_name
FROM information_schema.tables
WHERE table_schema = 'public';

-- Retrieve column details for a specific table (Example: 'customers')
SELECT column_name, data_type
FROM information_schema.columns
WHERE table_name = 'customers';

2. Descriptive Statistics

Calculate basic descriptive statistics such as count, mean, minimum, and maximum for numeric columns.

-- Basic descriptive stats for numeric columns
SELECT
    COUNT(column_name) AS count,
    AVG(column_name) AS mean,
    MIN(column_name) AS min,
    MAX(column_name) AS max
FROM customers;

3. Distribution Analysis

Understand the distribution of categorical and numeric variables.

-- Frequency distribution for a categorical column (Example: 'category')
SELECT category, COUNT(*) AS count
FROM customers
GROUP BY category
ORDER BY count DESC;

-- Histogram for a numeric column (Example: 'age')
SELECT age, COUNT(*) AS frequency
FROM customers
GROUP BY age
ORDER BY age;

4. Missing Values

Identify columns with missing values and their proportions.

-- Count of missing values for each column
SELECT
    column_name,
    SUM(CASE WHEN column_name IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) AS missing_count,
    AVG(CASE WHEN column_name IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END) AS missing_proportion
FROM customers
GROUP BY column_name;

5. Correlation Analysis

Examine correlations between numeric columns to detect linear relationships.

-- Correlation between two columns (Example: 'age' and 'income')
SELECT
    CORR(age, income) AS age_income_corr
FROM customers;

6. Grouped Analysis

Explore data based on groups to identify trends.

-- Summary statistics grouped by category (Example: 'gender')
SELECT gender,
    COUNT(*) AS count,
    AVG(column_name) AS avg_value,
    MIN(column_name) AS min_value,
    MAX(column_name) AS max_value
FROM customers
GROUP BY gender;

7. Outlier Detection

Identify outliers in your numeric data columns.

-- Outliers in 'income' column using IQR method
WITH stats AS (
    SELECT
        PERCENTILE_CONT(0.25) WITHIN GROUP (ORDER BY income) AS q1,
        PERCENTILE_CONT(0.75) WITHIN GROUP (ORDER BY income) AS q3
    FROM customers
)
SELECT *
FROM customers, stats
WHERE income < (q1 - 1.5 * (q3 - q1)) OR income > (q3 + 1.5 * (q3 - q1));

8. Time Series Analysis

Analyze trends over time if your data includes a timestamp column.

-- Aggregated data by time period (Example: monthly)
SELECT
    DATE_TRUNC('month', timestamp_column) AS month,
    COUNT(*) AS count,
    AVG(column_name) AS avg_value
FROM customers
GROUP BY DATE_TRUNC('month', timestamp_column)
ORDER BY month;

By leveraging these SQL techniques, you can effectively conduct an Exploratory Data Analysis and gain essential insights into your dataset. This will lay a robust groundwork for subsequent steps in your machine learning project.

SQL Integration with Python for Machine Learning

1. Connect to SQL Database

import sqlite3

# Establish a connection to the SQL database
connection = sqlite3.connect('example.db')
cursor = connection.cursor()

2. Query Data from SQL Database

# Define SQL query
query = "SELECT * FROM my_table"

# Read data from SQL database into a pandas DataFrame
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_sql_query(query, connection)

3. Data Preprocessing with Pandas

# Handle missing values
df.fillna(method='ffill', inplace=True)

# Convert categorical variables to numerical using one-hot encoding
df = pd.get_dummies(df, columns=['categorical_column'])

# Normalize numerical features
from sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler
scaler = StandardScaler()
df[df.columns] = scaler.fit_transform(df[df.columns])

4. Splitting Data into Train and Test Sets

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split

# Split data
X = df.drop('target_column', axis=1)
y = df['target_column']
X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.2, random_state=42)

5. Train a Machine Learning Model

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier

# Initialize and train the model
model = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, random_state=42)
model.fit(X_train, y_train)

6. Model Evaluation

from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, classification_report

# Predict on the test set
y_pred = model.predict(X_test)

# Evaluate the model
accuracy = accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred)
report = classification_report(y_test, y_pred)

print(f"Accuracy: {accuracy}")
print(f"Classification Report:\n{report}")

7. Save Model for Deployment

import joblib

# Save the model to a file
joblib.dump(model, 'random_forest_model.pkl')

# Close the database connection
connection.close()

This concise implementation guide covers the steps from SQL data retrieval to saving a trained model for deployment.

Model Deployment Fundamentals

Overview

Model deployment refers to the process of making a trained machine learning model available for use in a production environment. This involves several steps: preparing the model, creating an API, and integrating with other systems. Below is a practical guide to setting up a robust system for model deployment.

Steps to Deploy a Machine Learning Model

Step 1: Save the Trained Model

First, you need to save your trained model. If you are using a language-agnostic approach, consider serializing your model in a format such as JSON or a protocol buffer.

Pseudocode Example:

# Assuming you have a trained model 'trained_model'

# Serialize your model
serialized_model = serialize_model(trained_model)

# Save to file
write_to_file("model_file.json", serialized_model)

Step 2: Build an API for the Model

Create a RESTful API to interact with the model. This API will have endpoints to make predictions.

Pseudocode Example:

# Pseudocode for creating a REST API

# Library imports
import_rest_api_framework()

# Initialize the app
app = create_rest_api_app()

# Load serialized model
serialized_model = read_from_file("model_file.json")
model = deserialize_model(serialized_model)

# Define prediction endpoint
@app.route("/predict", methods=["POST"])
function predict():
    # Parse incoming JSON request
    request_data = get_request_data()
    
    # Extract feature data from request
    features = extract_features(request_data)
    
    # Make prediction using the loaded model
    prediction = model.predict(features)
    
    # Return prediction as JSON response
    return create_json_response(prediction)

# Run the app
run_app(app, host="0.0.0.0", port=8080)

Step 3: Model Version Control

Maintain multiple versions of your model to enable seamless updates and rollback.

Pseudocode Example:

# Pseudocode for version control

# Save model with version number
versioned_model_filename = "model_v2.json"
write_to_file(versioned_model_filename, serialized_model)

# Load specific version
required_version = "v2"
model_to_load = read_from_file("model_" + required_version + ".json")
model = deserialize_model(model_to_load)

Step 4: Integration with Other Systems

Integrate your deployed model with other systems using API calls.

Pseudocode Example:

# Pseudocode for integration

# Client making a prediction request
import_http_client()

# Prepare request data
request_data = {
    "feature1": value1,
    "feature2": value2
}

# Send POST request to model API
response = http_client.post("http://model-server/predict", json=request_data)

# Parse response
prediction = parse_response(response)

Step 5: Monitoring and Logging

Implement logging and monitoring mechanisms to ensure the performance of your deployed model.

Pseudocode Example:

# Pseudocode for logging and monitoring

# Import logging library
import_logging()

# Initialize logger
logger = create_logger("model_deployment")

# Add logging to prediction function
@app.route("/predict", methods=["POST"])
function predict():
    request_data = get_request_data()
    features = extract_features(request_data)
    
    # Log request details
    logger.info("Received request", request_data)
    
    # Make prediction
    prediction = model.predict(features)
    
    # Log prediction details
    logger.info("Generated prediction", prediction)
    
    return create_json_response(prediction)

Conclusion

Model deployment involves packaging the trained model, creating an accessible API, maintaining version control, integrating with other systems, and monitoring the deployment. By following the steps outlined, you can ensure your machine learning models are effectively deployed and maintained in a production environment.

Deploying Machine Learning Models with SQL Integration

1. Model Training and Serialization

Assume you trained a machine learning model and serialized it using a common format, such as pickle in Python, to simplify the deployment phase.

# Example using Python (for context)
import pickle
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression

# Training the model
model = LogisticRegression()
model.fit(X_train, y_train)

# Serializing the model
with open('model.pkl', 'wb') as file:
    pickle.dump(model, file)

2. Creating a SQL Table for Model Inputs

Create a table in your SQL database that will store the input features for your model.

CREATE TABLE model_inputs (
    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    feature_1 FLOAT,
    feature_2 FLOAT,
    feature_3 FLOAT,
    -- add as many features as needed
    created_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP
);

3. Storing Model Outputs

Create a table to store the predictions generated by the model.

CREATE TABLE model_outputs (
    id SERIAL PRIMARY KEY,
    input_id INT,
    prediction FLOAT,
    created_at TIMESTAMP DEFAULT CURRENT_TIMESTAMP,
    FOREIGN KEY (input_id) REFERENCES model_inputs(id)
);

4. Integrate the Model with SQL

The integration can be done using a language that can interact with both the model and the SQL database. Here’s a pseudocode example to illustrate:

# Load the serialized model
model = load_model('model.pkl')

# Connect to SQL database
db_connection = connect_to_database('database_credentials')

# Fetch new model inputs
new_inputs = db_connection.execute("SELECT * FROM model_inputs WHERE processed = FALSE")

for each input_row in new_inputs:
    # Collect features
    features = extract_features(input_row)
    
    # Predict using the model
    prediction = model.predict(features)
    
    # Store the prediction in model_outputs
    db_connection.execute(
        "INSERT INTO model_outputs (input_id, prediction) VALUES (?, ?)",
        (input_row.id, prediction)
    )
    
    # Mark the input as processed
    db_connection.execute(
        "UPDATE model_inputs SET processed = TRUE WHERE id = ?",
        (input_row.id)
    )

# Close the database connection
db_connection.close()

5. Implementing a Stored Procedure

You might prefer implementing a stored procedure within the SQL environment itself, assuming you have a way to call an external model and get predictions.

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE process_predictions()
LANGUAGE plpgsql
AS $
DECLARE
    rec RECORD;
    prediction FLOAT;
BEGIN
    FOR rec IN SELECT * FROM model_inputs WHERE processed = FALSE
    LOOP
        -- Call an external function or API to get the prediction
        prediction := call_external_model_api(rec.feature_1, rec.feature_2, rec.feature_3);
        
        -- Insert the prediction result
        INSERT INTO model_outputs (input_id, prediction) VALUES (rec.id, prediction);
        
        -- Update the input record as processed
        UPDATE model_inputs SET processed = TRUE WHERE id = rec.id;
    END LOOP;
END;
$;

Conclusion

By combining SQL for data storage and manipulation with a machine learning model, you’ve created a seamless workflow that integrates data science with a relational database. The pseudocode and SQL examples provided can be adapted to fit various use cases and actual programming environments.